Architecture- Scholarly Publications

Permanent URI for this collection

https://ir.unilag.edu.ng/handle/123456789/3695

Browse

Browsing Architecture- Scholarly Publications by Issue Date

Filter results by year or month
Now showing 1 - 20 of 68
  • Item
    Open Access
    State Parks: Potential for Domestic Ecotourism Industry
    (Lagos State Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation, 2001-06-01) Adejumo, O. T.
    On global scale tourism is the leading export earner. The World Tourism Organization statistics revealed that international arrival for the year 2000 was 653 million people. This excludes arrival for domestic tourism, which was projected to be ten times more than international tourists (Brackenhury 2000). The reality of economic benefits from tourism prompted the creation of Federal Ministry of Culture and Tourism with an emphasis on domestic ecotourism. The goal was to stimulate local interest in tourism at the preserved ecological zones as expressed in section seven of the nation’s cultural policy. While section 7.13 of the policy emphasized the role of government in promoting and encouraging domestic tourism, section 7.20 implored the States to establish parks, game reserves and beaches for recreation. State parks are created to preserve areas of ecological, historical and scenic values. They occupy a pivotal position between National Parks and Local Government Parks in a typical three tier governmental system. In state parks conservation and recreation are compatible land uses. The aim of sustainable state park system is planning and managing ecological resources at the grass root for the educational, economic, recreational and environmental benefits of the people without jeopardizing the same benefits for future generations. This permits conservation – recreation symbiotic concept. It is a concept that explores the principle of ecosystem management, resource preservation and friendly tourism services. The preserved area has minimum human impact and is exclusive for public management. At the buffer zone series of park support services are planned for private participation while the park front country made up of interpretation center and transportation system is opened to public-private partnership
  • Item
    Open Access
    Developmental Strategy For Sustainable Public Open Space System In Metropolitan Lagos
    (OAU Press, 2002-09-01) Adejumo, O. T.
    Livability in cities is enhanced by the availability of basic social amenities including planned recreational open spaces. Public open spaces system is a major yardstick used in measuring environmental success of cities. At the 2001 United Nation’s estimated population of 12,100,000 people in metropolitan Lagos, the ratio of planned open spaces to the population is 81,000 people per hectare. In comparison, the international average is 600 people per hectare. Past Lagos State Governments failed to recognize the role of parks in enhancing the quality of urban life. The government’s indifference and the informal role of various communities in meeting the recreational needs of the people, especially the youths, call for a local agenda. This paper explores the application of developmental strategy that could lead to sustainable public park system in metropolitan Lagos.
  • Item
    Open Access
    Sustainable Beach Tourism: Formalisation Of Local Agenda For Eleko Community Coastal Resources. in Globalization, Culture and the Nigeria Built Environment
    (2005-05-01) Adejumo, O. T.
    Integrated coastal zones management (ICZM) is identified as the most feasible developmental tool to stop the degradation of marine ecosystem. ICZM strengths the management of marine landscapes, preserves aquatic capital, promotes rural development and sustainable utilization of marine resources. Tourism, especially sustainable ecotourism, is one of the clean environmental land uses committed to economic empowerment of coastal communities in line with the current globalization paradigm. Tourism is an appealing sustainable economic development strategy for third world nations in dire need of alternative source of foreign exchange earning and poverty eradication program. The benefits of sustainable tourism emanates from the power of collective decision making in problems identification, needs assessment and solution profferment. Eleko community in Lagos state evolve a home grown participatory beach tourism as an alternative to the dwindling fortunes from artisan fishing industry. This paper examined the domestic beach tourism initiative and formalized the local agenda using an eight step participatory process. The result showed that Eleko beach project was intuitively developed in response to internal economic needs and external social influences. The formalized local tourism agenda identified three projects that can sustain the local economy including short term non consumptive recreational beach tourism, an aquatic resource-based restaurants product and development of eco friendly accommodation.
  • Item
    Open Access
    Street Side Space Resources and Urban Aesthetics in Metropolitan Lagos
    (Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Lagos, 2006-03-01) Adejumo, O. T.
    Streets provide vantage positions to experience the city and evaluate the quality of its physical form. The attraction and level of comfort achieved in the city is reflected by the wise concept with which its streets are platted. A city can influence its aesthetic quality by the degree to which the street side space resources especially trees, light fixtures, furniture and communication media are ordered. This paper examined the composition of street side resources in metropolitan Lagos. The study revealed that the foundation of the prevailing aesthetic shortcoming in Lagos is rooted in the non-conformity of the streets to designed standards. It is observed that Lagos streets are framed by filthy open drainage channels. This concept did not accommodate the role of street side spaces in enhancing the beauty of human settlements. Since city aesthetics reflect the cultural and social values of its inhabitants, there is a need to repackage Lagos street system to enhance sustainable aesthetic. Such repackaging demands a futuristic street design that focuses on environmental beauty. The study recommends an interrelated six-step solution including futuristic street philosophy that accommodates opinion of key stakeholders in street enterprise.
  • Item
    Open Access
    Housing Delivery in Nigeria: The Paradox of Complementary Social Needs
    (International Institute for research and advanced studies, University of Port Harcourt, 2009-07-01) Iweka, A. C.; Igwe, J. M.
    An increasing body of evidence concerning urban dwellers that live in less-than-desirable conditions in Nigeria suggests the absence of effective housing solutions and the need for adequate and affordable shelter. This paper addresses the inevitable problems of housing delivery in Nigeria especially for the inhabitants of existing and emerging urban towns and cities. The study argues that conventional concepts of value for money associated with housing often fail to adequately consider the broad and inclusive concept of public welfare. The study therefore goes beyond the strait-jacket consideration of cost and examines the ambit of physical, environmental, social, cultural, economic and political aspects of housing delivery. The paper draws attention to how value can be derived and maximized through a systematic analysis of the interdependencies and conflicts among identified variables, in order to chart a course of action for the future.
  • Item
    Open Access
    Creating Sustainable Safety in Urban Residential Neighbourhoods through Architectural Design
    (Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, 2009-09-01) Iweka, A. C.; Adebayo, A. K.; Igwe, J. M.
    Although the police and the criminal justice system are regarded as key contributors to the fight against crimes in urban residential neighbourhoods, recent thinking is that the complexity of the phenomena requires a wider approach. One of the newer approaches being propagated is sustainable urban neighbourhood safety through effective architectural planning and design. This approach argues that designers and developers should think of crime prevention as an integral part of the design processes that shape new developments. It has been projected that 10-15% of crimes have environmental design and management components. Increasingly it is being acknowledged that why, where and how crime and violence take place should be of interest to the process of architectural planning and design. This paper discusses how crime prevention considerations can be built into the processes that shape the physical structure and arrangement of group of buildings, landscapes, as well as other physical developments within urban residential neighbourhood spaces. The paper explores how design practices associated with different components of urban neighbourhood can facilitate or reduce the factors that contribute to crime or violence.
  • Item
    Open Access
    Positioning African Cities for Globalization: The Challenge of Slum Upgrading
    (International Institute for research and advanced studies, University of Port Harcourt, 2009-12-01) Iweka, A. C.; Adebayo, A. K.; Igwe, J. M.
    Although the phenomenon of globalization affects every facet of human life, a disproportionate amount of existing literature on this subject is skewed in favour of the Western world. There are many unanswered questions about how to be a global city. However, the current understanding is that they serve as nodes and hubs of international finance, goods, services, communication, information, politics, culture, etc. The question concerning whether global cities exist in Africa remains contentious. Most scholars, however, tend to agree that Africa stands out as the continent with the fewest number of global cities in the world today. Notwithstanding this unenviable profile, there are prospects that African cities could be positioned to take part in the global city network process. A starting point is to reconcile the contradiction in the global city theory that allows modernized territories to exist in juxtaposition with precarious slums and informal settlements. These two mutually dependent spheres of the city are interlinked with the process of globalization. This paper argues that the growth of slums throughout the world, and its predominance in Africa is a salient feature of globalization. The study postulates that for African cities in the era of globalization, one of the most pressing challenges is how the cities should deal with the proliferation of slums, and informal settlements. The paper finally discusses adequate and suitable counter-measures that could prevent the perpetuation of polarized dual cities of social conflicts.
  • Item
    Open Access
    Eleko Rural Beach Initiative: Maximizing Economic Benefit Of Domestic Tourism Destination In Littoral Lagos Community
    (Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Lagos, 2010-03-01) Adejumo, O. T.
    The catalytic effect of tourists spending across the economy entrenched leisure industry in the current globalization paradigm. Tourism has become an appealing sustainable economic development for third world nations in dire need of alternative source of foreign exchange earning and poverty eradication program. This is true of sustainable community base tourism that marries the needs for economic development and quality of life with the protection of natural resources. Eleko community rural beach in Ibeju-Lekki Local Government of Lagos State is a typical example. Through community participatory initiative, this 600 coastal village embarked on domestic tourism development as an alternative to dwindling fortunes from predominantly artisanal fishing industry. This paper examined the economic impact of this simple rural beach tourism initiative. The finding showed that the benefit accrued to the people is from ownership of small scale tourism enterprises and wages from employment. Increasing this benefit requires an efficient management that will explore the development of unique tourism product marketable in metropolitan Lagos. Such product must have a strong linkage to the primary farming and fishing occupation.
  • Item
    Open Access
    Informal Economic Sector and Sport Tourism: A Case Study of 2009 FIFA World Cup, Ijebu Ode Sub Seat
    (Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Lagos, 2010-09-01) Orelaja, O. P.; Adejumo, O. T.
    Sport tourism is a social, economic and cultural developmental phenomenon arising from the unique interaction of sporting activities, people and place. The synergy between sports and tourism facilitates local economy by stimulating goods and services small scale enterprises on an informal scale. Such grassroot leisure industry is underpinned by the concept of ‘pro poor tourism’. Pro Poor Tourism (PPT) is not another form of tourism but an approach that seeks to utilize tourism as strategic tool to alleviate poverty among the marginalized members of the communities. The aim of this study is to examine the effect of competitive sports tourism industry on informal economic sector activities using the recently concluded 2009 Federation of International Football Association (FIFA) U-17 World Cup tagged “Nigeria 2009” at Ijebu-Ode sub seat as a case study. Questionnaires and observation were the instruments used to obtain the data from informal economic sector operators within 1km radius stipulated by FIFA. Structured interview of stakeholders and opinion leaders were conducted. Five informal sector activities including the food and beverages; art and entertainment; memorabilia; transport; and affordable accommodation were identified. Financial gain increased remarkably for all the identified sectors during the event especially intra city transportation operators and food and beverages services. But over 90% of the souvenirs were from Lagos and Abeokuta. Study also revealed that there was increase in total workforce in various informal businesses during the event. Despite the level of preparation, community participation involving Chamber of Commerce, the various artisan groups and service provider cooperatives were not carried along. The extent to which the potential benefits of sports tourism accrue to local communities depends on the economic and social culture of the community. The hosting of the 2009 Federation of International Football Association (FIFA) U-17 World Cup tagged “Nigeria 2009” is undeniably a definitive moment for sports tourism in Nigeria. This paper observed that if the gap between Local Organizing Committee and local stakeholders is closed, then benefits accrued to the local economy will increase. The paper recommends the need for a concerted effort between sport ministry and government tourism agencies to draw-up policies that will accommodate vibrant informal sector as a tool for poverty alleviation
  • Item
    Open Access
    Improving Housing Durability in Deprived Settlements of Lagos Megacity through Ingenuous Use of Sustainable Indigenous Materials
    (Universiti Tun Hussein Onn, Malaysia, 2010-09-01) Iweka, A. C.; Adebayo, A. K.
    The challenge of housing delivery in many developing nations is exacerbated by the predominance of deprived settlements, according to recent publications of the United Nations Settlement Programme (UN-Habitat). In Nigeria, 30% of its urban population is currently living in Lagos megacity. The Lagos megacity region plays host to more than 200 officially recognized slum settlements. Going by the United Nations’ adopted definition, these settlements harbour households that suffer from lack of access to one or more housing deprivation measures such as durable housing, improved water, improved sanitation, sufficient living space and security of tenure. Nine major slum communities in this fast-growing megacity are presently benefiting from a massive World Bank assisted seven-year upgrading exercise that commenced in 2006. However, there is perplexity because emphasis is ostensibly on infrastructure, particularly roads. There is apparent neglect of the housing durability element. This paper argues that the approach adopted in this exercise is not exhaustive, and could in fact, portend danger for the future. The study discusses how the durability component of housing deprivation can be addressed through actions and policies that encourage ingenuous use of indigenous building materials.
  • Item
    Open Access
    Nigerian National Building Code as it Relates to Material Specification and Quality Control
    (Federal University of Technology, Akure, 2010-09-01) Iweka, A. C.; Falade, F. A.; Adebayo, A. K.
    Buildings are generally assessed using the criteria of firmness, utility and beauty, to determine the degree to which they are fit for purpose. The Nigerian National Building Code provides broad guides on general specifications and quality control, to ensure that materials used to execute building projects meet minimum standards. This paper examines the different materials captured in the Code, in terms of their special characteristics and in-depth aspects of quality, for best practice. The study addresses certain identified shortcomings in the relevant parts of the Code that deal with material specification and quality control.
  • Item
    Open Access
    Adaptive Framework for Post-Occupancy Evaluation of Public Housing Projects in Nigeria
    (Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Lagos, 2010-11-01) Iweka, A. C.; Adebayo, A. K.; Igwe, J. M.
    Government intervention in housing development is lauded in many countries, but inappropriate perception of the end-users has made many of such schemes largely unsuccessful. In Nigeria, many researchers have argued that inadequate knowledge of the nature, scope and dimension of housing problems coupled with myopic concept of the people’s needs are responsible for public housing failures. Correct as these arguments may be, there is little evidence that they are based on a comparison between a clearly articulated theory about how the housing projects are supposed to work i.e., design intent, and the end-users. This situation further brings to the fore, the need to have a current and accurate understanding of the performance of the houses being provided. Once the initial design intent is established the techniques of post-occupancy evaluation can be employed to determine the extent to which it has been met. The paper shows that there are several approaches for understanding and conducting post-occupancy evaluation studies. This study examines three approaches that could be adapted and used to identify and prioritize questions regarding public-sector housing evaluation in Nigeria, after the housing project has been inhabited for some time.
  • Item
    Open Access
    Urban Agriculture in Metropolitan Lagos: An Inventory of Potential Land and Water Resources
    (Academic Journals, 2011-01-15) Akinmoladun, O. I.; Adejumo, O. T.
    The research examines how urban agriculture as an individual household micro level strategy can directly influence the financial empowerment of urban poor within the Lagos metropolis, positively. Using secondary data collected from government agencies (satellite image, hydrology map, statistical data etc) and primary data collected from field observation and reconnaissance survey; the paper takes inventory of potential land and water resources that can contribute to urban agriculture within Lagos metropolis The research finds out that Lagos metropolis requires 18 times its present size (3,577 km2) to be able to feed her people on sustainable basis. It identifies 4,293 and 28,890 ha of potential land and water resources under the jurisdiction of Federal, State and private ownership, respectively. The paper recommends urban agriculture land use policies that will avoid clash between the interests of farmers and long term government land use goals. It concludes that such well articulated goals need to bear in mind the environmental impact of urban agriculture on the cityscape as well as its management on a sustainable basis such as the choice of crops and ideal number of farmers needed for land and water resources in the State.
  • Item
    Open Access
    The climate change challenge in Africa:- impacts, mitigation and adaptation
    (Asian Economic and Social Society, 2012) Adebamowo, M.; Uduma-Olugu, N.; Oginni, A.
    Climate change is now a reality, and is already having devastating effects on the natural environment and human populations across the world. Many studies (Maathai, 2006; UNFCC 2006; CCDI 2007; IPCC 2007 and UNDP 2009) have confirmed that Africa contributes the least to global warming but the region is the most vulnerable and most adversely affected by climate change. Unpredictable rains and floods, prolonged droughts, subsequent crop failures and rapid desertification among others have in fact already begun to change the face of the continent. Africa’s poor and vulnerable will be particularly hit by the effects of the rising temperatures. This paper examines the problem of climate change in Africa; its impacts, mitigation and adaptation measures are equally investigated. The paper explains that neither mitigation nor adaptation alone can avoid significant impacts but together they can compliment each other and reduce significantly the risks of climate change. Finally it concludes with recommendation to African Countries to enable them reduce vulnerability and increase capacity to adapt while suggesting the need to integrate climate change concerns into all planning whether it be infrastructure, education or health.
  • Item
    Open Access
    Reducing heat-load in buildings through the use of solar screens: Case study of bookshop house, Lagos
    (David Publishing Company, 2012) Adebamowo, M.; Godwin, J.; Oginni, A.
    Abstract: Technology advancement has ensured a better means of livelihood essentially in certain parts of West Africa, specifically Nigeria, where the climate is predominantly hot in most parts throughout the year. Air-conditioning has reduced the harshness of indoor discomforts to the barest minimum. It is no more uncommon to find it regularly in use in most homes and offices. Currently, theeconomy has the centrality of its power supply hinged on generator plants. The enigma of the current situation is how this alternative problem has catastrophic after effects on the environment. This and many more add up to the greatest of all the threats now evading our environment and the world — Global warming. The threat of Global warming is real and the need to find less environmentally destructive sources of energy cannot be overemphasized. This paper is a contribution towards energy saving in buildings through the reduction of solar radiation incident on buildings. Sustainable Building calls for an integrated planning approach for operating buildings economically, substantially reducing their impact on the environment by reducing energy/power consumption, amongst others, and enhancing the well-being of their inhabitants. Only buildings that reconcile all of the above factors are fit for the future. A case study of the CMS (Catholic Mission School) Book Shop house in Lagos was carried out. The methodology involved the use of asolar chart and shadow angle protractor to determine the overheated periods represented by the shading masks and data collected. From this analysis, it was decided to accept the use of external sun shading and preliminary designs and specifications were prepared by the architects. The use of external solar screens made a saving of up to 75% of the energy input which would otherwise have been required by air-conditioning.
  • Item
    Open Access
    Integrating Heritage Sites into Contemporary Urban Areas: Case Study of Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria
    (Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Lagos, 2012-06-01) Lawanson, T. O.; Adejumo, T. O.
    Urban and Regional Planning is primarily concerned with city development, incorporating physical, socio-cultural and economic growth of places. It is expedient for planning to integrate historical factors into the general outlook of a city’s image, identity and overall form. Planners and policy makers are responsible for devising means by which a city’s historical aspects could be harnessed to achieve both political and economic development within the framework of city planning. The Lagos metropolis, Nigeria’s primary urban centre, is growing both in size and population. However, as the city develops, its history, form and ancient characteristics are gradually and continually being expunged. This has led to the development of a Lagos metropolis that has all the properties of an urban center but has failed to realize the potentials which its historical background can contribute to its overall physical, socio-cultural and economic development.This paper assesses the key sites of historical value and importance in the Lagos metropolis, their maintenance and management over the years and the efforts of government and other stakeholders towards their integration into the emerging megacity in line with global best practices, heritage preservation and sustainable urban development
  • Item
    Open Access
    Effect of Households’ Socio-Economic Condition on Crowding in Government-Built Apartments in Lagos, Nigeria
    (Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia, 2013-07-01) Adebayo, A. K.; Iweka, A. C.
    This study evaluated how occupants’ socio-economic status affect household crowding in multifamily walk-up apartments built by the government for low and medium income dwellers in Lagos, Nigeria. The focus was on Lagos State Development and Property Corporation (LSDPC) as a case study, using survey research design approach. Four large housing estates with a population of 7,764 dwelling units were purposively chosen from locations at Abesan, Iba, Ikoyi and Ebute-Metta. A sample of 7.5% (582) was selected, using systematic and stratification techniques. Pre-tested questionnaires were used to obtain responses from household heads pertaining to number of persons and demographic data for each housing unit. A return rate of 30.2% was recorded. Socio-economic grouping of households was derived using a monthly income estimate for the head of household. Households were grouped into low, medium and high income categories. Data analysis was done by applying adult-equivalent number of occupants to the Canadian National Occupancy Standards (CNOS) and the Equivalized Crowding Index (ECI). The results indicate a preponderance of gentrification, with attendant policy implications. The results also show that there is no significant difference in the degree of crowding among the different socio-economic classifications. This is inconsistent with the generally held understanding in urban housing studies that crowding rates are higher in low income households than in medium and high income households. The findings tend to suggest that LSDPC should adopt appropriate strategies to forestall the disappearance of low income households from its multifamily apartments.
  • Item
    Open Access
    Dwelling Density Variability across Government-Built Multifamily Apartments in Lagos
    (Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia, 2013-08-15) Adebayo, A. K.; Iweka, A. C.
    This study examined the variability of dwelling density across different classifications of multifamily apartments built by Lagos State Development and Property Corporation (LSDPC) in Lagos, Nigeria. Six design prototypes used to build several multifamily apartments in four estates were purposively selected as case study. The focus was on comparing how the interior spaces in the six multifamily prototype apartments were occupied during habitation. Overall population of apartments studied was 7,764 representing the total number of apartments in the four purposively selected estates. A sample of 7.5% (582) was chosen using stratification and systematic random techniques. A survey research technique was adopted to obtain responses to pre-tested questionnaires regarding the demographic data of occupants. Data analysis was done by applying adult-equivalent number of occupants based on Canadian National Occupancy Standards (CNOS) and the Equivalized Crowding Index (ECI). The intensity of dwelling density during habitation across various apartment classifications was presented in two parts namely single measure and group measure. The results obtained using the group measure show that households containing three to five persons were the most dominant in all apartment types. The result also shows that there was no substantial disparity in dwelling density across different apartment classifications when analyzed using single measure approach. This finding was supported by the results of a chi-square test which found that, at 95% confidence level, apartment type had no significant effect on dwelling density in LSDPC’s multifamily apartments. The findings are important for policy issues that relate apartment types to household sizes and crowding. The results are also relevant for policies regarding provision of infrastructure and other complementary facilities in government-built estates to improve residents’ welfare and quality of life.
  • Item
    Open Access
    Nigerian Landscape Charter: Conceptual Framework Discourse
    (International Federation of Landscape Architects, 2013-09-01) Adejumo, O. T.
    Sustainability as a developmental paradigm to checkmate uncontrolled use of earth finite resources crept into global consciousness in the last quarter of twentieth century. It is now apparent that the 1992 wave of sustainability philosophy was insufficient to mitigate the global and local degradation of natural capital hence the need for a fresh wave of sustainability dictum that will catalytically empower the ineffective previous waves to overcome difficult developmental hurdles and infuse new values especially quality of life, bio-centric perceptions and local thinking on global scale. It fits in to landscape philosophical clarification that respects indigenous, regional and national aspirations ways of thinking in developmental process. This paper explores a framework to actualise Nigerian landscape charter. An apparent expectation of national landscape charter is a friendly challenge of the current developmental statuesque that dismembered congruous landscapes into cultural, natural and historic unities under the management of numerous agencies and ministries without a harmonized agenda. The paper argues in favour of desktop study of the current policy objectives at federal level to fully comprehend in built participatory framework. The second step is primary data collection through series of workshops to understand geosophic perspectives of diverse cultural systems relative to contextual bioregion. The Paper submitted that comparative analysis and synthesis of current environmental statuesque and fresh findings from geopolitical workshops will evolve a unified national landscape philosophy. Included are desired urbanism; driving ideology for agriculture, protected area, mining, integrated coastal area management; and envisioned rural Nigeria dictum that cut across all bioregions. This will lead to national policy objectives for various areas of the landscape
  • Item
    Open Access
    Architecture
    (Facta Universitatis, 2013-09-12) Adebayo, A. K.; Iweka, A. C.; Ogunbodede, B. F.; Igwe, J. M.
    Despite the modern and grandiose appearance of most architectural projects, closer examinations cast doubts on their sensitivity to the cultural and traditional past of the societies for which they were intended. Space for human habitation and interaction is one of the primary aspects of man's culture, and is basic to any architectural discussion. For a long time, architecture in most developing nations was shaped by colonial contexts and ideologies. The architects seemed more committed to revitalizing the civilization of other advanced countries within a new world setting. The focus of this paper is on the interplay between architecture and culture. The relationship between spaces created by architects and the local culture is examined within the context of place –the house, the community, the region, as well as the nation. The study identifies ties that bind groups together. It also explores the components that constitute spatial character. Physical and intangible aspects of materials in achieving environmental character are evaluated. Key questions regarding the professional and ideological inclination of architects are addressed. Finally, the impact of emerging global trends occasioned by contact of cultures is analyzed.